SUMMARY OF THE VEDAS.
Introduction: The Vedas are the basic structures of Hinduism. However, not much has been written about them in English, giving a brief but panoramic view of the whole Vedic literature in simple style. Hence this attempt. In addition, this paper tries to:
- Show that the Vedas contain all the ideas that appear in later literature pertaining to Vedanta, bhakti and allied sciences;
- Clear the misconception that they teach polytheism, tribal beliefs like totemism or nature worship.
It is extremely difficult to fix the date of the Vedas. The dates assigned by the various scholars vary as widely as 25,000 B.C. to 1,000 B.C. However, the general consensus among most of the Indian scholars is to consider the Harappa-Mohenjodaro culture (c. 4,000 B.C.) to be a later phase of the Vedic culture. This places the date of the Rig-veda, the earliest of the Vedas, around 10,000 B.C.
For centuries, the Vedas have been handed down to the posterity by oral tradition. Hence the name sruti, 'what is heard'. And, they have been mainly utilised in the performance of yajnas and yagas (sacrifices), which were the most common form of early Vedic religion. Such utilisation of the Vedas in the sacrificial processes naturally led to its division based upon the convenience of the chief priests conducting the sacrifices.
A compilation of all the hymns used by the hota-priest to invite the various deities to the sacrifice became the Rig-veda. All the liturgical parts of the Vedas, useful to the adhvaryu-priest, the chief executor of the sacrificial rites, brought together, formed the Yajur-veda. Collection of all the musical chants, especially those associated with the Soma group of sacrifices, and to be sung by the udgatr-priest, the singer, was named as Sama-veda. The rest, a sort of miscellaneous appendix and addenda, became the Atharva-veda and was assigned to the brahma-priest, considered as the supervisor over the whole sacrificial process.
As per the annals of the Hindu orthodoxy, the great sage Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasa is said to have effected this division by collecting all the mantras extant during his time, and editing them into four groups: Rk, Yajus, Saman and Atharvan. He taught them to his four chief disciples: Paila (Rig-veda), Vaisampayana (Yajur-veda), Jaimini (Sama-veda) and Sumantu (Atharva-veda). This is how these four Vedas took shape.
The Vedas are divided in another way too: Mantra and Brahmana. Samhita is the name given to the collection of the Mantras. The Brahmana includes in itself two more sections, the Aranyaka and the Upanishad. If the Mantras comprise the hymns, the Brahmanas contain liturgies in prose. The Aranyakas teach about meditations based on symbolical interpretations of the liturgical rites. The Upanishad may roughly be classified as philosophical treatises dealing with the ultimate problems of life.
Conventionally speaking, it is the Samhita that is indicated by the word Veda. For instance, Rig-veda means only the Rk-samhita or the Rg-veda-samhita. The Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads of the Rg-veda have different and independent names and are considered more like its appendages.
These Samhitas, in course of time, branched off, leading to the formation of sakhas or recensions. The origin of these sakhas probably lies in the fact that each of the principal sages like Paila or Vaisampayana had several disciples. These disciples or their successors might have done some editing and readjustment of the Vedic mantras to suit the needs of the rites which they had to perform and upon which local culture too might have exerted its influence.
A brief account of the contents of the four Vedas may now be attempted here.
The Vedas are divided in another way too: Mantra and Brahmana. Samhita is the name given to the collection of the Mantras. The Brahmana includes in itself two more sections, the Aranyaka and the Upanishad. If the Mantras comprise the hymns, the Brahmanas contain liturgies in prose. The Aranyakas teach about meditations based on symbolical interpretations of the liturgical rites. The Upanishad may roughly be classified as philosophical treatises dealing with the ultimate problems of life.
Conventionally speaking, it is the Samhita that is indicated by the word Veda. For instance, Rig-veda means only the Rk-samhita or the Rg-veda-samhita. The Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads of the Rg-veda have different and independent names and are considered more like its appendages.
These Samhitas, in course of time, branched off, leading to the formation of sakhas or recensions. The origin of these sakhas probably lies in the fact that each of the principal sages like Paila or Vaisampayana had several disciples. These disciples or their successors might have done some editing and readjustment of the Vedic mantras to suit the needs of the rites which they had to perform and upon which local culture too might have exerted its influence.
A brief account of the contents of the four Vedas may now be attempted here.
RGVEDA-SAMHITA.
Of all the four Vedic Samhitas, the Rgveda-Samhita is the oldest and has a pre-eminent place in the Vedic literature. It is a collection of suktas or hymns revealed to various tishis or sages at different periods of time. Consequently we can notice a variety of styles of language, grammar, ideas as also historical and cultural factors.
Though it is said to have 21 sakhas, only five are known to be extant: Sakala, Baskala, Asvalayana, Sankhayana and Mandukeya. Except for the order of arrangement of the suktas there do not seem to be any substantial variations among them.
Since ancient days, two methods of dividing this Veda are in vogue. In the first, it is divided into eight ashtakas. Each ashtaka is again subdivided into vargas, containing mantras. This mode of division has been done obviously with a view to facilitating memorisation, since the number of vargas in each ashtaka and the mantras in each varga are more or less the same. A total of 10,552 mantras are spread over 2,024 vargas, included in the 64 adhyayas of the 8 ashtakas.
In the second method, the whole Samhita has been divided into ten mandalas. The mandalas are subdivided into anuvakas, the anuvakas into suktas and the suktas into mantras. The number of anuvakas is 85, that of the suktas 1,028, the total number of mantras being, of course, the same.
The latter method seems to be the more ancient one and has universal approval among the modern Vedic scholars.
There seems to be some method and order in the arrangement of the suktas into the ten mandalas. The six mandalas (two to seven) contain suktas revealed to the rishis of the same generic group (vamsa). For instance, if the seers of the suktas in the second mandala belong to the lineage of Grtsamada, those in the third belong to the descendants of Vishwamitra and so on.
The first and the eighth mandalas contain respectively the suktas of Satarcins and Pragathas. The suktas of the ninth mandala are all in praise of a single deity - Soma Pavamana - and are classified according to their metres. The last, the tenth mandala, is a miscellany of suktas inclined more towards metaphysical subjects.
The topics dealt with in the Rigvedasamhita fall roughly into three groups. The first group deals with the deities like Agni, Indra, Varuna and others. The second group is concerned with philosophical speculations like the origin of the universe and the real nature of human beings. The third group deals with several secular subjects like marriage, wars of kings, eulogy of generosity and so on.
The Vedic deities are usually enumerated as 33--8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, Indra and Prajapati. These deities are assigned to the three regions of the earth (prithvi), heavens (dyaus) and the intermediary space (antariksa). Though they appear like personifications of forces of nature, they are all actually facets of Brahman, the Supreme Truth. The mantra in which the well-known statement, ekam sat, viprah bahudha vadanti (Truth is one; sages call It by various names) (1.164.46) occurs, is proof enough of this fact. [vide 7.58.2; 10.114.5; 2.1.11; 8.1.27; 2.13.6 also]. However, it may be noted that Indra, Agni, Varuna and Mitra have been given the pride of place in the hymns.
Coming to the philosophical speculations of this Veda, we find that it is the origin and repository of almost all the later ideas of Vedanta including jnana (knowledge) and bhakti (devotion), though some of them are in a seed form. This forces us to concede that it is not a book of laudatory hymns only as some try to make it out.
As already pointed out above, it teaches eka-devata-vada or monotheism and not polytheism, as is often mistakenly assumed. However, advocacy of sagunopasana (worship of God with form and qualities) is predominant.
God creates this world out of Himself (10.81.2-4) and rules over it (10.82.1; 6.19.10; 6.45.20). He is omnipresent (1.13.10), omniscient (6.7.6; 8.25.9) and omnipotent (6.30.1; 2.29.3; 3.59.1). He is ever perfect (6.24.7; 6.11.4). But He is infinitely compassionate (2.34.5) and easily approachable by the devotees (8.32.15). He is our dearest friend (10.80.2) and grants us immortality (6.45.6; 5.47.7).
As regards the actual process of creation, we find two streams of thought, creation and evolution, both of which have been found in the later Vedantic literature.
Though the existence of the soul as an eternal entity is accepted and amrtatva or immortality is prayed for, the life here and now is not relegated to the background. Life here and life hereafter have been nicely harmonised.
From the group of suktas dealing with the secular side of life, we can get an inkling into the nature of the society of those times. Social life was permeated by spiritual consciousness. But people strongly believed in samanvaya or harmonising the life of this world with the one in the next. Satya (truth) and Dharma (righteousness) are extolled and amrtatva (immortality) as the goal of life accepted. Varna system had already taken roots. Monogamy, polygamy and svayamvara system (that of a bride choosing her husband) - all existed side by side. Agriculture and animal husbandry were the chief means of livelihood. Equitable distribution of wealth was advocated. Civilisation was well-developed and fine arts encouraged. Priests and Kings were powerful. System of sacrifices had evolved to a high degree of perfection.
Hindu tradition strongly advocates a knowledge of the rishi, the devata and the chandas of any mantra before using it in the religious rites. Then only will it be effective. Rishi is the sage to whom the mantra was revealed; devata is the deity to whom the mantra is addressed; and chanda is the metre in which the number of chandas is 19 including the minor variations.
The Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishads of this Veda are:
Coming to the philosophical speculations of this Veda, we find that it is the origin and repository of almost all the later ideas of Vedanta including jnana (knowledge) and bhakti (devotion), though some of them are in a seed form. This forces us to concede that it is not a book of laudatory hymns only as some try to make it out.
As already pointed out above, it teaches eka-devata-vada or monotheism and not polytheism, as is often mistakenly assumed. However, advocacy of sagunopasana (worship of God with form and qualities) is predominant.
God creates this world out of Himself (10.81.2-4) and rules over it (10.82.1; 6.19.10; 6.45.20). He is omnipresent (1.13.10), omniscient (6.7.6; 8.25.9) and omnipotent (6.30.1; 2.29.3; 3.59.1). He is ever perfect (6.24.7; 6.11.4). But He is infinitely compassionate (2.34.5) and easily approachable by the devotees (8.32.15). He is our dearest friend (10.80.2) and grants us immortality (6.45.6; 5.47.7).
As regards the actual process of creation, we find two streams of thought, creation and evolution, both of which have been found in the later Vedantic literature.
Though the existence of the soul as an eternal entity is accepted and amrtatva or immortality is prayed for, the life here and now is not relegated to the background. Life here and life hereafter have been nicely harmonised.
From the group of suktas dealing with the secular side of life, we can get an inkling into the nature of the society of those times. Social life was permeated by spiritual consciousness. But people strongly believed in samanvaya or harmonising the life of this world with the one in the next. Satya (truth) and Dharma (righteousness) are extolled and amrtatva (immortality) as the goal of life accepted. Varna system had already taken roots. Monogamy, polygamy and svayamvara system (that of a bride choosing her husband) - all existed side by side. Agriculture and animal husbandry were the chief means of livelihood. Equitable distribution of wealth was advocated. Civilisation was well-developed and fine arts encouraged. Priests and Kings were powerful. System of sacrifices had evolved to a high degree of perfection.
Hindu tradition strongly advocates a knowledge of the rishi, the devata and the chandas of any mantra before using it in the religious rites. Then only will it be effective. Rishi is the sage to whom the mantra was revealed; devata is the deity to whom the mantra is addressed; and chanda is the metre in which the number of chandas is 19 including the minor variations.
The Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishads of this Veda are:
- Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmanas;
- Aitareya and Sankhayana Aranyakas; and
- Aiatreya and Kausitaki Upanishads.
YAJURVEDA-SAMHITA.
It is a collection of yajnas, the mantras in prose which are specially useful to the adhvaryu-priest in the performance of sacrifices.
The Yajurveda Samhita is in two major forms: the Krsna and the Sukla, meaning the Black and the White. It is rather difficult to explain why these two major branches got these names. Though a Samhita [and hence should have been purely in poetry] the former is a mixture of prose and poetry and hence not pure. So, it has been called Krsna, the Black One. In contrast, the latter being entirely in poetry, is Sukla, the White One. This is the first explanation. Being more ancient, the former is rather difficult to comprehend and so is Krsna or Black. The latter is of more recent origin and hence easier to grasp. So it is Sukla, the White One. This is the second explanation.
Though the Krsna Yajurveda Samhita is reputed to have had 85 sakhas or recensions, only four are available now: (i). Taittiruya; (ii). Maitrayaniya; (iii). Katha; (iv). Kapisthala.
The Taittiriya Samhita which is widely prevalent in South India, has seven kandas or books, 44 prajapathakas or chapters, and 651 anuvakhas or mantras. It deals mainly with the detailed descriptions of sacrifices like Paurodasa, Yajamana, Vajapeya, Rajasuya, Darsapurnamasa and Somayagas.
The other three sakhas are not so well-known though they too deal with similar sacrifices. The last of these, the Kapisthala, as available now, seems to be incomplete.
Associated with the Taittiriya Samhita are the Taittiriya Brahmana, Taittiriya Aranyaka and the Taittiriya Upanishad. The well-known Kathopanishad also belongs to the Krsna Yajurveda, but to the Katha recension.
The Sukla Yajurveda Samhita, also known as the Vajasaneyi Samhita, is said to have been collected and edited by the famous sage Yajnavalkya. It is entirely in verse and resembles the Rigveda Samhita in form. However, there are no suktas in this. Though seventeen sakhas of the Samhita are said to have existed, only two - the Kanva and the Madhyandina - are available now. The former, more prevalent in the South, has forty adhyayas or chapters, 328 anuvakhas or sections, and 2,086 mantras. The latter, more common in the North, has 40 adhyayas, 328 anuvakas, and 1,978 mantras.
Like the Taittiriya Samhita, this Samhita also deals mainly with sacrifices like Agnistoma, Vajapeya and Rajasuya.
The Satapatha Brahmana, the biggest of the Brahmanas, and the Brihadaranyaka are the Brahmana and the Aranyaka attached to the Sukla Yajurveda. Isavasyopanishad and Brihadaranyakopanishad are the Upanishads of this Veda.
SAMAVEDA-SAMHITA.
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